Composition and Perspective in Theran Wall-Painting

The task may appear fruitless since most examples, even though preserved in an exceptionally good state, exhibit irremediable blanks which make them unsuitable at first sight for observations of a compositional nature. Yet, some peculiarities, if not certainly present on all documents, are rather easy to recognize, e.g. the full frontal perspective, the general absence of the conventional landscape border at the top, the disregard for the structure of the building, especially for the angles of walls and for the openings, which contributes, together with the first two characteristics, to a perfect integration of the decoration and results in a totally effective trompe-l'oeil. These features are likely to reveal some significant differences from the usual standards of Aegean wall-painting and consequently possible preferences of Theran artists and attempts made by them to develop an original style of their own.

The interest in Theran wall-paintings has essentially concentrated since their discovery on the iconography and their value as illustrations of religious life and beliefs in the middle of the second millennium in the Aegean, and they certainly have added much to our knowledge of aspects of both Aegean civilization and culture. Sufficient attention, however, has not been given to another important component of the paintings, namely their composition. Interpretation has been limited here too often to general statements, and there is only one specific but limited approach of the topic (Iliakis 1978). The laying out of the different motifs and figures and their association in a whole picture deserve, in fact, closer examination, since they appear to show some significant differences from Aegean and especially Cretan wall-painting. The emphasis on this will be the purpose of the present paper.

The miniature paintings in room 5 of the West House come first to the mind when considering Theran figurative art, and they fit well indeed into the general framework of Aegean artistic conventions (on these paintings most recently Morgan 1988). Whether we look at the Meeting on the Hill illustrated on the north wall, or at the Exotic Landscape displayed on the east wall, or at the Ship Procession taking place on the south frieze (S. Marinatos 1974, Col. Pl. 7-9; Morgan 1988, Col. Pl. A-C), the same composition appears: an association of vertically drawn individual elements appearing in full profile and a horizontal perspective of the natural context in which they are standing or moving, which appears as seen from above in an aerial view, or in a so-called 'cartographic conception of space' (Iliakis 1978, 621): the sea, the seashore, the soil and the enclosure with trees on the north wall, the blue river on the east, the sea and the rivers around the Departure Town on the south.

The origins of this particular figurative rendering of space, which is prevalent in ancient cultures, are evident, as has been emphasized recently by G. Walberg: '...the landscape is "turned up" towards the near plane so that the figures and the objects which are meant to be behind each other can become visible and so that their spatial relations can be clarified.' (Walberg 1986, 120.)

Many Minoan parallels are known for such a mixed conventional conception of space - not only as far as miniature paintings are concerned - and a complete catalogue of them would be superfluous. The inspiration is no doubt largely Cretan, exactly as it is for most iconographic themes and motifs, and this impression is perfectly consistent with the general interpretation of the remains uncovered in Akrotiri. The only exceptions to this rule concern the representation of mountainous landscapes and the images of elaborate architectural assemblages on the north and south friezes (Morgan 1988, Pl. 1-2, 8, 13), both presented in frontal view and not, as far as the buildings are concerned, in a perspective in which 'the more distant houses are depicted above the nearest ones' and 'everything is shown in the vertical' (Iliakis 1978, 621). But this again follows Cretan standards, as has been recently confirmed for town images by the discovery of the Master impression, and the detailed iconographic analysis of the Minoan tradition of similar compositions proposed in the publication of the document (Hallager 1985).

Large-scale paintings, however, give another picture. One of the most representative in this respect, the Spring Fresco from room Delta 2, shows a complete frontal perspective, both for animals and vegetation and for the rocky landscape (S. Marinatos 1971, Col. Pl. A-C). This figural convention certainly adds much to the naturalism of the scene, together with the consequently empty background open to the sky, so different from the horror vacui usually prevalent in Aegean figurative art, but it contributes at the same time to the perfect integration of the decoration into its architectural setting, as will be emphasized later. The same comment applies to the Papyruses in room 1 of the House of the Ladies (S. Marinatos 1972, Col. Pl. E-F), even though the picture has here an evidently more ornamental character, and though the landscape is limited to an undulating dark band at the bottom representing the ground in which the plants are growing. The Blue Monkeys on the walls of room Beta 6 reveal a similar composition (S. Marinatos 1972, Col. Pl. D), differing, however, in some respects, if the upper part of the picture has been correctly restored as a continuation of the natural landscape reaching the very top and leaving no space for the sky background (N. Marinatos 1984, Fig. 80 and 83).

The frontal perspective of these painted panels is further indicated by the absence of the border of landscape elements hanging from the top of the scenes. There is again no need to list all the examples of this typically Minoan and early Mycenaean convention (Morgan 1988, 33), whose application largely extends to figurative arts in general, whatever their material support and their techniques. The empty upper part of the Theran compositions offers a sharp contrast to what seems an Aegean and especially a Cretan iconographic rule (see especially the Saffron Gatherer fresco from the Palace at Knossos) allowing very few exceptions. The Lilies fresco from the villa at Amnisos is the most significant one (Cameron 1978, 581, Pl. 1, and especially as far as the composition is concerned, Walter 1950), but the stepped decorative band in the background of one of the sets of fragments (Walberg 1986, Fig. 77) seems to interfere with the apparently open perspective, unless it was intended as the painted imitation of the irregular border of a true opening cut in the wall thus contributing further to the illusion of the picture. The above-mentioned fresco of the Blue Monkeys is just a possible Theran exception, and the impression is, in fact, that the restoration of its upper part has been inspired precisely by Minoan models. The Boxing Children and the Antelopes frescoes from room Beta 1 (S. Marinatos 1971, Col. Pl. D-F) seem to constitute another exception. The dark undulating band at the top, however, is evidently not meant here as a landscape border, since it lacks the usual cut-out outline and the usual additional details making the identification certain in Minoan models. It has probably to be understood rather as an ornamental and abstract element, and this is certainly not unexpected in the present case. The picture shows a complete isolation from the natural context which is further emphasized by the fact that the hooves of the antelopes are not even touching the ground. It has at the same time a strong emblematic character, like other isolated human figures or representative designs, the Fishermen, the Young Priestess and the Banners or Cabins from the West House (S. Marinatos 1974, Col. Pl. 4-6; for the interpretation of the last motifs, see most recently, Shaw 1982).

The absence of the hanging inverted landscape border on most of the Theran paintings is worth mentioning. It was known, on the one hand to the Akrotiri painters, since it appears as a horizontal border for the painted decoration on the hull of the ships on the Ship Procession (Laffineur 1984, 134-135; Morgan 1988, Pl. 10-12). It rules, on the other hand the composition of some of the most richly decorated movable documents from the same provenance, even though sometimes in a more stylized version: the clay kymbai with dolphins (S. Marinatos 1969; Pl. 11, 2), dolphins and quadrupeds (S.Marinatos 1974, Pl. 80 and Col. Pl. 11)or swallows (S.Marinatos 1969, Pl. 17, 2), and the clay and plaster tables of offerings with crocuses (S. Marinatos 1976, Pl. 51; N. Marinatos 1984, Fig. 60) or dolphins (S. Marinatos 1972, Col. Pl. C; a similar duplication of the landscape border on polychrome vessels: Marthari 1987, 377, Fig. 27-28). Such a difference must be a significant one when dealing with two classes of pictorial documents which have so much else in common - the technique of ornamentation for the plaster offering table, the elongated surface reserved for painted decoration in the case of the kymbai, and the polychrome painting. It should not be considered as a mere fortuitous difference but could rather be interpreted as a sign of conscious emancipation from Minoan models, bearing testimony to the contribution of Theran artists to the development of an original style of wall-decoration.

The general absence of a real border at the top - except of course the one imposed from the outside by the upper end of the wall itself and the ornamental band eventually underlining it - finds an equivalence on the left and right sides, where the paintings generally cover adjoining walls in a continuous sequence regardless of the angle between them. This is not unparalleled in Crete, as exemplified by the broad composition from the House of the Frescoes at Knossos (N. Marinatos 1984, Fig. 61), but it is certainly not a common feature of Minoan painting. This particular convention, as suggested by C. Doumas (1983, 73), could well have been inspired by decorated pottery, in which the painted ornamentation develops in a continuous horizontal sequence all around the vase whereas limits are imposed vertically at the top and bottom (on the relation between vase-painting and wall-painting, see also Walberg 1986, 86-88). Its systematic use on wall-paintings leads one to forget the architectural structure of the room, if not to make it completely disappear, and it seems to be a typical preference of Theran artists, as well as an originality of their own.

The above mentioned examples are illustrative of this evident tendency, whose final effect is to suggest in a limited and closed volume a space completely open on the four sides to the outside, as well as to show an image of the surrounding landscape that really exists outside that volume, which becomes strongly suggestive of the third dimension. Especially typical in this respect is, once again the Spring Fresco, the utmost expression of such a trompe-l'oeil - a term used here simply in the sense of dummy perspective and not to be understood as including the additional concept of the one-point perspective of the Italian Renaissance or even merely that of receding convergent lines as attested in Roman wall-painting. The miniature paintings of the West House are a further probable example of this illusion, though rendered on a limited scale. There is only one sure transition between adjoining walls, that between the east and south friezes, which indicates an unbroken succession clearly emphasized - in fact rather thematic than strictly graphic (Iliakis 1978, 621) - by the horizontal river, but there is no obvious reason to reject a similar thematic junction at the transition between the other friezes.

This finds confirmation indeed in the new reconstruction proposed by Dr Televantou in the summary of her thesis delivered at this Congress. The thematic unity is clearly emphasized by the presence of towns on all four sides of room 5, three new towns being added, especially town III, which 'radically alters the character of the East Frieze', and town I, the only preserved part of the west frieze. The sure association of architecture and landscape with flora and fauna on three sides and probably also on the fourth - and the absence of a break between them produce a panoramic view. This contributes to the effect of trompe-l'oeil, to the impression that a real landscape is seen through a 360 degrees opening in the walls ('a kind of geographical map' according to Televantou). But it does not necessarily imply that this panoramic landscape is a true reproduction of the surroundings of the West House: whether the painting depicts a specific historical place or just a generic location (see J.W. Shaw's paper in this volume, favouring the second interpretation), it remains true that the 'departure town' and the 'arrival town' on the south frieze are clearly separated by an area of open sea and that they cannot consequently be part of one and the same geographical unit. A partially external location is accordingly almost certain, e.g. on an island not far from Thera itself (L. Morgan's opinion), in the Eastern Mediterranean (Televantou in this volume: 'the activities of the Aegean fleet in the Eastern Mediterranean, which we believe is the setting in which some of the events depicted on the Miniature Frieze are enacted'), or in Crete (see J.A. MacGillivray's paper in this volume: the 'arrival town' corresponds to the topographical features of the Palaikastro-Roussolakos area, with promontory, harbour and the site of the new excavations, Building 1 being the equivalent of the 'Urban Shrine' on the left of the 'arrival town' and the place where the final stage of the rites of passage could have taken place for young aristocrats coming from the whole Aegean; but the existence of a double harbour has been rightly observed by J.W. Shaw; see also the paper by G. Heiken, F. McCoy and M. Sheridan at this Congress: the 'departure town' and its surroundings on the left side of the south frieze represent the island of Thera before the eruption, whereas the 'arrival town' on the right side might represent part of the northern coast of Crete).

The disregard for the structure of the building is also expressed by the integration of real openings into the painted surface or - to put it in a more logical way - by the fact that the decoration covers the entire wall and is merely interrupted by the eventual openings cut in it; that is the location of the openings, does not impose, as is usually the case, the structural organization of the decoration in panels or friezes. The best example again can be found in the room of the Spring Fresco (S. Marinatos 1971, Col. Pl. B-C): the low opening at the bottom of the wall in the north-west corner has been reduced to a mere hole and its architectural structure, which would normally appear as a complete frame, has been totally covered by the painted decoration which extends up to the very edge of the cutting. The continuation of the ornamentation on the jambs of the opening further contributes to the camouflage of the support.

The paintings in room 3 of Xeste 3 could provide similar examples (see the reconstructions in N. Marinatos 1984, Fig. 40, 43, 44 and 52), but the preservation is here not sufficient to allow a sure reconstruction of the relation between painted ornamentation and architectural structure. (Contra the general optimistic statement in Iliakis 1978, 617: 'At Akrotiri consideration of the wall-paintings is not handicapped by conjecture or uncertainty about their form, composition or function within the architectural space they decorate.')

The same holds true for room 1 in the House of the Ladies. The location of the high window visible in the excavator's reconstruction (S. Marinatos 1972, Col. Pl. F; see also N. Marinatos 1984, Fig. 69) is not questionable, since it must be based on elements observable in the structure of the wall even if the plan does not make it clear (S. Marinatos 1974, suppl. plan 2), but it is impossible to know for certain whether the wooden frame had been left visible or covered with the painted coating, as in room Delta 3 with the Spring Fresco. Similar doubt could apply to the door openings in room Beta 1 and all we can say in favour of the reconstruction which has been adopted (S. Marinatos 1971, Col. Pl. D) is that the panels with the emblematic Boxing Children and Antelopes indeed fit better in the strongly marked structure imposed by the visible wooden beams.

The Window of the Lilies in room 4 of the West House certainly gives the most elaborate version of both camouflage and trompe-l'oeil (S. Marinatos 1974, Pl. 49-51 and Col. Pl. 3 and 5). The motif of a pot of flowers covering the left and right jambs conceals them completely, even though the frame of the window itself has apparently not been covered, but at the same time it gives the illusion of real objects standing on both sides of the opening. The artist has probably succeeded here in creating the most perfect integration of a decoration in an enclosing structure. The fact that this feature is quite unprecedented in Aegean painting makes it possible to emphasize one of the originalities and attainments of local painters, or, following G. Walberg's dichotomy (Walberg 1986), to weigh the respective importance of tradition and innovation.

This proves to be in agreement, on the other hand, with the conclusions of E.N. Davis's stylistic and technical approach to the Thera wall-paintings (this volume), which results in the identification of other features of an indigenous Cycladic style also illustrated in Phylakopi and Ayia Irini: painting on a white background with white elements reserved as opposed to coloured backgrounds and added white in Minoan painting, linear outlines more frequent in Thera than they are in Crete, transparent technique as opposed to the Minoan opaque technique. This is also in keeping with L. Morgan's observation (this volume) of additional indigenous features in Cycladic wall-painting, which appear to be uncommon in Minoan art: marine setting, limited role of women, abstraction of nature at Ayia Irini or integration of flora and fauna with the human world, i.e. a 'parallelism between nature and culture' in Thera (the highest expression of which is the collaboration of animals with humans), coherent iconographic scheme for 2 or 3 adjacent rooms (see the synthesis: 'Though the concept of wall-painting, the basic techniques used, and some of the subjects of Cycladic painting were adopted from Minoan Crete, there are more indigenous features in the paintings than borrowed.' See also M. Marthari's conclusion for pottery: 'The pottery sequence [of the West House] echoes this battle for supremacy between local and foreign elements that is concluded with a peculiar co-existence and balance ... self-determination and individuality.')

The aim of the present analysis was in a first approach to lay stress on some compositional peculiarities of the wall-paintings uncovered in Akrotiri in view of further discussion, but certainly not to exhaust the subject. Time is not ripe for such a definite examination: some important wall-decorations are awaiting a full study of their composition and the lacuna concerns especially the rich illustrations of room 3 in Xeste 3 (most recently N. Marinatos 1984, 61-84; 1985, Fig. 6-8; 1987, Fig. 1-3). Yet the interpretation which has been drawn - even though provisional - perfectly agrees with C. Doumas's recent opinion: 'The Theran artists were not daunted by problems of space for their compositions. They painted on large unbroken areas of wall, smaller areas interrupted by openings for doors and/or windows... All these surfaces were a challenge to the painter which he met in various ways, each time finding a new and original subject appropriate to the particular surface... The artists must have had a high degree of freedom in the execution of their works, even if not in the choice of themes... As a result the paintings are remarkably unconventionalized, full of vitality and the breath of inspiration. This is in marked contrast to the frescoes of Crete, which adhere to the rigid conventions imposed by the ruling palaces. At Akrotiri art was not the monopoly of the monarch, as in the palaces of Crete, but was patronized by the more affluent members of a competitive society, who commissioned artists to paint their houses and enhance their surroundings, perhaps to impress their peers and rivals. Competition would have been encouraged among the artists, who each strove to create something innovative and original.' (Doumas 1983, 73-74.)

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