Remarks on the Composition of Hunting and Battle Scenes on the Chest of Tutankhamun

Although the motifs are not directly comparable with those found on wall paintings from Thera, some of the artistic principles seem to follow similar ideas.

INTRODUCTION 

The wall paintings of Thera show not only many different subjects but also various concepts, such as space or concentration, single depiction or echelon, the attitudes of figures and the pictorial transformation of movement. Various forms of composition are also well known in Near Eastern and Egyptian art. Even if subject, context, combination of figures and patterns as well as functional background differ, numerous motifs and principles of depiction appear to be comparable.

In contrast to the murals of Thera and the often vivid paintings in the tombs of Egyptian officials, the royal paintings and reliefs of the New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC) in Egypt are regarded as bound by icon and tradition. Upon closer examination, however, it would appear clear that in certain contexts a great diversity of expression can be demonstrated. It is not only the large number of different subjects and a meticulous precision of detail which are important, but above all the conception of the basic scheme. In other words, despite a basic iconic framework, every single subject is modified depending on context and function, and is often additionally provided with descriptive and narrative elements. The spectrum of royal activities comprises above all the defeat of enemies in battle and the hunting of wild animals as well as the great festival processions, which were arranged in a particularly lavish way. However, it is not only the great cycles of action on temple walls which clearly show compositional skill, including the reduced versions on single monuments like the 'Victory stela' of Amenophis III (Cairo, Egyptian Museum CG 34026). Such scenes are also depicted on royal tools, furniture or war equipment for example on the chariots of Tuthmosis IV (Cairo, Egyptian Museum CG 46079) and Tutankhamun (Cairo, Egyptian Museum JE 61989-61994; Littauer and Crouwel 1985).

THE HUNTING AND BATTLE CHEST OF KING TUTANKHAMUN

The hunting and battle chest of Tutankhamun, which is decorated with fine miniatures, is an excellent example of the high quality of ancient Egyptian painting, and a perfect demonstration of the complexity of its composition.

The chest (Porter and Moss 1973, 577ff.; Carter and Mace 1923, 129-131, pls. L-LIV; Davies and Gardiner 1962; Edwards 1978, 75ff.; Saleh and Sourouzian 1986, no. 186; Schoske 1994, 213 d17), now exhibited in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, belongs to the burial treasure of the king. It was disrovered by Howard Carter in 1922, standing on the floor in the antechamber (Fig. 4) of the royal tomb near the closed passage leading to the burial chamber. However, its original position in this chamber and its contents are uncertain, not only because the ancient tomb robbers created a great deal of disturbance but also because the necropolis officials subsequently rearranged them haphazardly. They crammed the painted chest with different kinds of objects, including cloth, sandals, beadwork, a headrest and various other things. A wooden label with a hieratic inscription marked "Papyrus sandals of His Majesty" (Černý 1965, 15 §61) perhaps refers to its original contents. If so, the connection between the metaphor of the king trampling down his enemies with his sandals and the decoration of the box which shows the pharaoh fighting the chaotic side of Creation is obvious. Unlike many other spectacular sandals, the papyrus ones seem to be made for relatively robust use, perhaps as part of the military clothing of the king.

For the chest itself the following technical data are recorded:

Location:              Cairo, Egyptian Museum JE 61467

Material:              wood, covered with a stucco layer and painted

Measurements:     height 44 cm., length 61 cm., width 43 cm.

Preservation:        the wooden parts seem to be in good condition and only the lid is somewhat warped. The stucco layer shows several cracks, and the colours were altered a little in the initial restoration

The decoration of the chest covers the entire exterior (Fig. 5a-b). Each side forms a separate panel, but the vaulted lid is subdivided lengthwise and shows two scenes oriented in different directions. All panels have a tripartite frame, which consists of two different multicoloured bands (blue, green, red and yellow) with a rosette trim (the rosettes blue with a red central dot, on a yellow background) in between. The outer decorative band has a delicate striped pattern, the inner band a chequered motif made up of small squares. In addition, there is an inscribed column in the centre of the lid, which separates the two panels and contains names, titles and epithets of King Tutankhamun:

"Horus: Ka-nekhet Tut-mesut,

Perfect god, Image of Re,

Possessor of a strong arm, crushing the Nine Bows;

the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Ruler of a joyful heart,

Lord of the Two Lands: Neb-kheperu-Re,

Son of Re of his body,

his beloved: Tut-ankh-Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis (= Thebes),

given life like Re eternally."

In the tympanum at each end of the lid a winged sun disc is depicted together with the two cobra shaped crown goddesses for Upper and Lower Egypt flanking a cartouche with a name of the king.

West side: "Tut-ankh-Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis".

East side: "Neb-kheperu-Re".

The subjects on the panels are directed towards the four cardinal points (Fig. 1).

1.      Both narrow sides show in symmetrical arrangement the symbol of the winged sun disc on the lid, and on the chest a double antithetic portrayal of the sovereign who, in the form of a sphinx, treads down his enemies -a motif well known since the Old Kingdom (e.g. Borchardt 1913, pl. 8). Each sphinx is shown with a pair of enemies, symbolising the northern and southern regions or the eastern and western ones. In accordance with the solar reference of the scene, both sides mark the fixed points of the cycle of the sun, east and west.

2.      The long sides depict battle scenes running in opposite directions. On the side belonging to the north, the king drives his chariot into the Syrian enemy; on the southern one he makes an assault on the Nubians.

3.      Each battle scene is accompanied by a hunting scene (Eaton-Krauss 1983; Sa'ad 1975, 99-100, pl. XXXVI) on the lid of the chest running in the same direction. True to geographical reality, the sovereign hunts a pride of lions in the south, whereas in the north he pursues other desert animals (gazelles, Bubal hartebeests, wild donkeys, ostriches and a hyena).

THE SOUTH SIDE OF THE LID - LION HUNT (Figs. 2a, 3a, 6)

The king with his chariot is in the centre of the scene. The chariot, which is richly decorated with feather trimming and blankets, races off at full gallop, while Tutankhamun stands upright in it with drawn bow. Inside the upper part of the bow, above the arrow, are inscribed the birth and throne names of the sovereign:

"Perfect god: Neb-kheperu-Re,

Son of Re: Tut-ankh-Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis (= Thebes)."

Two dark-skinned fan bearers with dyed fair hair follow him running quickly. The sun disc floats above the sovereign, accompanied by two figures of the vulture goddess. The inscription expresses the wish that the king "may receive eternal life" from the sun. The scene behind the figure of the king is subdivided into three sections, in which armed foot soldiers and chariot troops follow him. In front of the king there is a group of lions in an apparently chaotic jumble. The savannah region, where the scene takes place, is on the one hand expressed by flowering bushes, and on the other hand by uneven ground, which appears as red and yellow shading with a spotted pattern.

The picture of the king is within a figurative frame, which creates the effect of a large triangle. Behind him are his two companions with the towering fans, above him the vulture goddesses and in front of him his chariot and his hunting dog (Fig.3a). A hieroglyph for the sky (Egyptian pet) spans the entire royal panel.

The suspense of the scene is further increased by the combination of two effectively contradictory messages. The king and his chariot are both the central focus of the scene and a calming influence within it. His figure is surrounded by the only clear parts of the entire scenery and, in contrast to his escorts, is for the most part free of overlapping elements (even the bowstring and arrow are drawn behind his body in an unrealistic way). On the other hand, his drawn bow points towards the front, and his posture expresses dynamism; his horses thrust forward and his hunting dog bites the right forepaw of a slain lion. The turbulent dynamism is bound up with the soothing certainty of success, leading to the clear statement which is also expressed in the text field of six columns above the horses' heads:

"Perfect god, mighty of strength;

Sovereign who is boasted

of fighting lions (and) of the existence of his strength prevails;

his power is like the Son of Nut (= Seth)."

The greatness of the king is shown not only by means of composition and text, but also through the height of his figure and the use of special colours. The strong contrasts of the colours used (red, blue, yellow, green, black and white) stand out boldly from the basically yellow colour of the lions and the background. In addition, the combination of blue and yellow indicates preciousness and divinity, in analogy with the idea that the flesh of the gods consists of gold and lapis lazuli.

The front third of the picture is determined by the differing postures and lines of vision of the lions, giving a totally different impression from the uniform movement of the king and his retinue. Even if it is intended to convey chaotic disorder, it is clear that this scene is also based on a comprehensible scheme. The first three lions immediately in front of the king have already been defeated, and lie in different positions (one on its right side, one on its left side and one on its back) on the ground. The heads of the lions at the top and at the bottom are twisted antithetically and, in contrast to the rest, are depicted frontally. A further group of three lions has turned in order to escape, and hurries away in the opposite direction. Only the smallest lion in the middle has not yet been hit by any arrows, which shows that the action is still continuing. Only two of the lions still alive are turned towards the king. One of them is just breaking down, and only the lion in the centre is still making a gesture of initial threat. An arrow has gone through his left forepaw, which he raises roaring with pain. At the same time, another arrow penetrates his wide open jaws, an event which signals the final stage of his resistance. It is important to realise that there is contact in the form of direct confrontation between the king and this lion (Fig. 3a).

The advance of the king's escort is determined by a regular rhythm, which is relieved by a large number of different details (Fig. 2a). The chariot horses in both the top and bottom sections are portrayed in identical gallop, in just the same way as the horses of the sovereign. There are two persons in each chariot, and the symmetrical ordering of the figures in simple alternating sequence is evident:

at the top: charioteer - fan bearer / charioteer - fan bearer (= a,b / a,b),

at the bottom: charioteer - bold official/charioteer - bold official (= a,b / a,b).

In the middle section the foot soldiers prepare for an assault, with arms and legs overlapping at regular intervals. The rhythm of the figures is strengthened by the symmetrical ordering of the fair-and dark-skinned figures:

fair - fair - dark - fair - dark - fair - fair (= a,a - b,a,b - a,a).

Dress and weapons, as well as minor variations in the positions of the figures and the variety of the surrounding flora relieve the rigidity of the structure. The entire composition thus leaves no doubt about the hunting success of the sovereign, whose arrows reach the furthest corner of the scene. Only the king, his horses and his hunting dog are in direct contact with the lions, and consequently only the king is able to fight and force back chaos. It is worth noting that the front paws of the two largest lions play a special part: the royal dog has bitten into the right paw of one of the lions, and the arrow of the king has gone through the left paw of the other. This indicates that the offensive power of the entire group has been destroyed by the king.

Besides the significance of iconography and composition, the number of figures also plays an important part in building up a further level of meanings. Even though numerical symbolism has not been given full treatment, the religious background implies certain significances. They are:

1     standing for the singularity initiating the Creation,

2.     for the Egyptian dualistic concept of this world and

3     for general plurality of beings.

4     refers to the four points of the compass signifying the totality of space,

6     to Royal dualism in its various aspects,

7     to the concept of royal power.

8     symbolises the development from pre-Creation to the created world and

9     absolute variety as a second level of Creation.

10    conveys general structure arid

11    the totality of Creation in space and time.

In opposition to all these numbers, 13, 17 and 19 seem to stand for chaos and conflict.

On the lion hunt panel we find the following constellation:

1 king +

(2 fan bearers and 7 foot soldiers =) 9 persons +

(4 + 4 men in chariots =) 8 persons = 18 human beings < = > 8 lions.

Furthermore we find that the number of horses among the Egyptian troops is also 8. Consequently, the 8 lions and the 8 charioteers with their 8 horses stand for the chaotic and structured elements of which Creation consists, as well as the totality of space. The foot soldiers (7) underline the power of the king and the variety of the well structured Egyptian world (9). Finally, the total number of 18 human beings documents the combination of structured variety and dualistic principle of this world guaranteed by the Egyptian king (2 x 9 = 18). However, it is crucial to understand that as far as the conception of this panel is concerned the lions do not only represent the chaotic side of the Creation.

Their number and the iconic meaning of lions refer to the situation before Creation, and it is the activity of the king which is necessary to initiate the process of structural development.

THE NORTH OF THE LID - DESERT HUNT (Figs. 2b, 3b, 7)

As on the other side of the lid, the structure of the painting on the north side is divided into three parts. The king is again portrayed in the centre, with behind him his escort in three sections and in front of him the escaping desert animals. The surrounding scenery is depicted in a similar way and is again provided with flowering bushes. The ground differs slightly, as there is no indication of unevenness. The more or less evenly spotted pattern may refer to a sandy and stony desert.

The king stands upright in his chariot with drawn bow, and is again fitted into a figurative triangular frame (Fig. 3b). Within the upper part of his bow the two name rings with the birth and throne names of the king are visible as in the lion hunt panel:

"Perfect god: Neb-kheperu-Re,

Son of Re: Tut-ankh-Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis."

Even if some details, such as the decoration of the chariot, the headdresses of the horses, the hair colour of the fan bearers and the wing positions of the vulture goddesses, have been changed slightly, the same basic scheme is evident. This time the main inscription runs in seven columns and two lines:

"Perfect god, Mountain of gold,

illuminating the Two lands with his divinity,

shining forth gloriously on the horse-chariot even as Re arises.

He has assumed the crowns of Re,

he found numerous herds of desert animals

(and) His Majesty captured them in a little moment."

To the right and left of the sun disc, above the wings of the two vulture goddesses, the wish is twice expressed that "she may give life and welfare". In contrast to the lion hunt there is no direct opponent facing the king. All the animals hasten away (Fig. 3b), and only the heads of two Bubal hartebeests are turned backwards (Fig. 2b). One of them has already been killed and is lying on the ground, the other one falls on its knees and is gripped by the last of the three hunting dogs. There is no visual contact with the king, as these animals are not serious opponents of the sovereign, unlike the lions in the other panel. The fleeing herd consists of different groups. Seventeen Bubal hartebeests with two calves form the major part, eight of them lying on the ground or falling to their knees. Two more groups frame the scene at the bottom and top of the painting, together with three gazelles followed by a calf. Other animals flee amongst them, including four wild donkeys, a hyena and two ostriches with their beaks wide open. Some of the animals have their tongues hanging out as a sign of exhaustion. The three hunting dogs of the king have been very successful, and each of them has grabbed a Bubal hartebeest: the first one by the neck, the second by the throat and the third on the back. Almost all of the animals in the lower part of the painting have been hit by arrows, and are consequently condemned to die. Only the ostriches are an exception. In the upper part of the painting, however, several animals remain uninjured, including all the wild donkeys and the group of gazelles. It may be that the association of the wild donkey with Seth, the god of the desert, is responsible for this taboo, especially as Tutankhamun is to be endowed with the elemental power of this god, according to the inscription on the scene of the lion hunt opposite. However, the hyena and the Bubal hartebeests also have a dose association with Seth, and they are wounded. Perhaps they refer to a different aspect of the Sethianic character. The gazelles and the two ostriches are not Seth animals, but they are connected with the sun god Re, and this may be the reason why they also are unhurt. The number of animals in the groups varies between one and five. The nineteen Bubal hartebeests form units of four and five, which are broken up in the middle of the panel by the death of the animals. The group formation of the animals which are still alive is that of dense echelons and uniformity of colour. The Bubal hartebeests are reddish brown throughout. The colour of the other animals ranges from light beige to dark brown. In contrast to the hunted lions, the chaotic aspects of the wild animals are not expressed by means of varying positions and directions as much as by the breaking up of the groups and the interruption of the echelon in the area beside and in front of the hoofs of the royal chariot horses. Again it is the king and his attributes which produce an antithesis through strong colour contrast, with the main emphasis on blue and yellow.

The king's escort likewise provides a strong parallel to the scene of the lion hunt (Fig. 3b). In the upper and lower sections appear the chariots, with the foot soldiers marching in step between them. The rhythm is differently constituted, however (Fig. 2b). In the top section are three chariots, the middle chariot with white horses and the charioteers with dark skins. Within the group of foot soldiers, dark-skinned figures alternate with fair-skinned ones, but the variety of weapons in their hands modify the rhythm. In the lowest section two bald officials appear in the chariots together with dark-skinned charioteers.

The composition of this panel differs from that of the lion hunt. There is only one general direction of movement of all beings depicted, dominated by the king, and even the orientation of the wounded and dying animals is similar to that of the others.

The use of the echelon for the desert animals is particularly notable, because this manner of presentation normally stands for the structured world and not for the creatures of chaos. This makes it clear that the two hunting scenes shows us two different levels of the royal battle for a structured world. The numerical symbolism also supports this idea. Instead of 8, the number 10 plays an important role in the constellation, presenting the general principle of order:

1 king +

(2 fan bearers and 7 foot soldiers =) 9 persons +

(6 + 4 men in chariots =) 10 persons = 20 human beings < = > 30 desert animals

The number of horses in the troop is also 10. The variety of the animals hunted is shown by the different species and groupings (1 hyena, 2 ostriches, 3 gazelles with 1 calf, 4 wild donkeys, 17 Bubal hartebeests with 2 calves). However, the total number of 30 (3 x 10) animals shows that all of them are under the structural control of the king. The number of hunters again stresses the dualistic principle (2 x 10) of this world.

A summation of the numerical values of both panels on the lid results in the following: 38 humans face 38 desert animals = 76 (4 x 19). The basic number 19 stands for conflict, power and chaos, whereas the number 4 represents the spatial dimension.

THE SOUTH SIDE OF THE CHEST - NUBIAN BATTLE (Figs. 2c, 3c, 8)

In the middle of the picture we are again presented with the central figure of the king in his chariot. Together with the wagons and infantry following him, which are shown in the three small sections, he occupies a space twice as large as the part of the picture showing the Nubian enemy. This differentiation demonstrates the symbolic victory of the Egyptian sovereign over all existing enemies, about which the dogma does not permit any doubt. The surrounding landscape is characterised by the plants shown in the picture. The palm in the middle section behind the king indicates that the area lies in a southern territory. The part of the picture showing the royal chariot differs slightly from the basic model of the fields on the lid. Above the king is the sun disc with the Uraeus snakes. Instead of the obligatory life promises, life symbols hang down from the bodies of the snakes. In front of the royal face two cartouches with his names and titles are visible, as in the other panels:

"Perfect god: Neb-kheperu-Re,

Son of Re: Tut-ankh-Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis (= Thebes)."

Three fan bearers accompany the king. The first and the third are light-brown-skinned Nubians, the second a dark-brown-skinned one. The chariot is situated in the middle of the battlefield, so that the wheels of the chariot roll over the dead soldiers. The inscriptions are arranged in two columns on the lefthand side of the horses' heads, as well as in a column and an additional line on the righthand side:

"Perfect god, Image of Re,

shining forth gloriously over the desert lands even as Re arises,

destroying this land of Kush

shooting his arrows against these enemies."

At first sight, it might seem possible to argue that the concentration of the enemy forms an indiscriminate confusion, but, on looking more carefully, one can make out some groups which belong together. However, as in the lion hunt, there are no elements facing the front and drawn up in an echelon. The bodies of the soldiers already killed lie above or underneath each other on the ground in all different kinds of positions, six of them with their faces towards the front. Most of them have been pierced by arrows, while two of them have been beheaded. The attitudes of several figures are repeated more than once, though modified. Two of the enemy (for example, those in the lower left section of the picture) run away. The first one raises his arm in a gesture of despair, the second turns his head back and looks towards the king in a frightened manner (Fig. 3c). It is evident that there is no hope for them. Two other dying soldiers under the legs of the royal horses are bitten in the face and in the back of the head by the sovereign's dogs (corresponding to the desert hunt where two of the dogs bite two Bubal hartebeests in the throat and neck), and two decapitated men lie on the ground.

The turbulence of the scene is reinforced by the fact that priority is given to the image of pairs and groups of three who are placed in antithesis to each other (head uppermost - head down, leaning to the right - leaning to the left, fully extended - hunched up etc.: Fig. 3c). Furthermore, the lighter and darker skin colours of the enemy are used as a means of structuring the scene as a whole (Fig. 2c).

A particular kind of structure is also built up by the shields of the enemy and of the Egyptian soldiers (Fig. 2c). There are also connections between two or three figures with a distance between them: for example, three Egyptian soldiers, in the midst of the slain foes, cutting off the hands of the dead as proof of their victory. (The direct intervention of Egyptian soldiers in the fight is a late Eighteenth Dynasty extension of a motif which has its roots in the relief art of Amarna.) These Egyptian soldiers form a connecting triangle (Fig. 2c), and are clearly differentiated from the vanquished enemy by their dynamic posture, their red-brown skin colour, their clothes and their symmetrically patterned shields (Fig. 3c). Further connections are made by means of visual contact, touch and similarities in posture.

The escort of the king, which is depicted in the three sections behind the sovereign, has a distribution slightly different from that in the picture of the hunt. The upper two sections each show two chariots: in the upper one there are fan bearers next to the charioteers, in the lower one there is another fan bearer and a bald official. Again, there is some slight variation in dress: the charioteers wear only loincloths, whereas the fan bearers and the bald official wear fine pleated garments.

The group of archers in the lower section marches in step in a very close echelon. The rigid postures are relieved by the slightly varied sling of the bows and by the dark-skinned soldier in the penultimate row.

The distribution of colours is also of paramount importance. The area with the king and his escort is characterised by bright rich colours, which are strongly contrasted, whereas brown and black shades predominate in the battlefield scene.

The number of figures shows the following distribution:

1 king +

(3 fan bearers + 3 soldiers on the battlefield =) 7 persons +

(8 foot soldiers + 8 men in chariots =) 16 persons =

13 Egyptians < = > 23 light-skinned + 10 dark-skinned Nubian enemies = 33 Nubians.

Furthermore, as in the lion hunt panel, there are 8 horses in the Egyptian troop. Altogether this makes 56 (7 x 8) figures, a number which stands for the royal guarantee of Creation.

THE NORTH SIDE OF THE CHEST - SYRIAN BATTLE (Figs. 2d, 3d, 9)

The group composed of the king and his escort is depicted in almost identical manner as in the other pictures. Here, however, only two fan bearers follow the king. By contrast with the Nubian battle, the guarantee of life of the vulture goddesses is expressed in writing as it is in the lid pictures: "may she give all life". As in all the other panels, the ringed names and titles appear in front of the royal face:

"Perfect god: Neb-kheperu-Re,

Son of Re: Tut-ankh-Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis."

The inscription in front of the king consists of one vertical column with a horizontal line below:

"Perfect god, Son of Amun,

valiant without his peer,

Lord of strength, crushing hundreds of thousands,

laying them prostrate."

However, the structure of the battlefield area with the Syrian enemy is completely different from that of the Nubians. Many of the enemy lie on the ground, and there are three broken down chariots belonging to the Syrian opponents in the picture (Fig. 3d). Egyptian soldiers move around in order to kill the last of the enemy and cut off their hands as proof of victory. One of the soldiers (in the upper right corner) gives the coup de grâce to a fallen horse.

As in the other panels, levels of connection play an important part. The connecting triangle in the middle consists of the chariots of the enemy (Fig. 2d). Their direction of fall, the heads of the horses hanging on different sides, the dead bodies of their occupants hanging down from the chariots as well as the decapitated heads of some of the dead soldiers characterise total defeat. In analogy with the Nubian battle, two of the sovereign's dogs bite in the head of a dead soldier and the neck of another. The ongoing action in this part of the picture is determined by six Egyptian soldiers who are spread out over the whole battlefield. They are shown on three different levels and standing in pairs, directly corresponding with the three sections of the escort behind the king.

However, their arrangement is completely different:

Upper part: line of vision is directed towards the king.

Middle: line of vision is directed away from each other.

Lower part: line of vision is directed towards each other.

These six Egyptian soldiers face six charioteers with their six horses. Further connections are difficult to find because the spotted pattern of the clothes is barely contrasted with the dotted patterning of the ground. Only the blue capes of the Syrians and their dark blue chariots make it possible to find points of prominence which increase the tension of the action.

The enemy is subdivided into two groups: thirteen figures in blue capes and fourteen in bright robes.

The escort consists of six chariots in three sections. In this picture, too, a white chariot is shown, but this time in the lower section. The bald officials are shown in the middle. Apart from that, it can be described as simple close echelon formation.

In the number symbolism, 6 and 7 as royal numbers and 8, 9 and 12 as Creation numbers are important:

1 king +

(2 fan bearers + 6 warriors on the battlefield) = 9 persons +

(4 + 4 + 4 men in chariots =) 12 persons =

21 Egyptians (3 x 7) <=> 13 + 14 Syrians = 27 (3 x 9).

Altogether there are 48 (6 x 8; 4 x 12) figures in this panel. Combined with the Nubian battle's 56 (7 x 8) the result is 104 (13 x 8) standing for the totality of the fight against chaos.

THE EAST AND THE WEST SIDE - THE TREADING DOWN OF THE ENEMIES (Fig. 10)

On each of the narrow sides of the chest, there are two pictures of the royal sphinx. The two magnillcently adorned figures with wings, Atef crowns and fans (those on the east side with the short curled wig, those on the west side with the Nemes headdress) flank the pair of large cartouches of the sovereign. These are crowned with feathered sun discs and rest on a large hieroglyph signifying gold. Under each paw two foreign enemies are visible, lying or kneeling on the ground in dislocated posture. In these pictures each sphinx is also accompanied by the vulture goddess who promises him life.

The inscriptions consist of two columns to the right and left of the cartouches. On the west side:

"Perfect god, Image of Re;

Lord of strength, crushing the great ones of all lands.

Perfect god, Son of Amun,

valiant one who crushes all foreign lands."

And on the east side:

"Crushing the great ones of every foreign land under your sandals,

crushing the great ones of vile Kush under your sandals"

On the east side there is also a winged sun disc integrated into the picture. The annotation text refers to the "One who belongs to Edfu" (= Horus of Edfu).

THE CONCEPT AND COMPOSITION OF THE CHEST AS A WHOLE

At first sight it might seem obvious that all hunting and battle scenes show a comparable three-part structure:

1.     dose echelon of the escort,

2.     separate position of power of the king,

3.     chaotic variety of the desert animals and enemies.

However, on closer inspection it becomes clear that the total composition is far more complex. The king with his chariot enclosed in a figurative triangle is clearly defined in each of the scenes. Among the enemies and the wild animals, can be found groups which consist of 2-5 figures. These are related to each other by means of attitude, and physical and visual contact.

Different tendencies are evident in the battle and hunting scenes. In both hunting scenes we find open scenarios, in the sense that, since some animals are taking flight, the events in the picture open outwards. In the lion hunt, several animals are depicted next to each other without being shown in front of or behind one another. Consequently, the compositional method used appears to be that normally only thought appropriate for the king. From this it can be inferred that the lion holds a position comparable to that of a king. This interpretation is arguably supported by the fact that one of the lions is looking at the king who is killing him.

The desert hunt is laid out in a completely different way. The fleeing animals are represented as if in military formation. This kind of representation is not used for the other representatives of chaos (lions and enemies), but is normally used only for the king's escort. This apparent order disappears only in the section where slain animals are seen lying on the ground. This calls to mind ideas which were developed by Tutankhamun's predecessor, Akhenaten, in Amarna, and his special concept of nature. One should thus regard these animals as representatives of chaos which is to be fought only in a limited way.

The position of the real enemies is completely different. In theory, none of them should escape, so that in both cases a violent bloodbath is depicted. That this is the main message of the image is underlined by the Egyptian soldiers on the battlefield, who demonstrate the undisputable death of the slain soldiers by means of the amputated hands.

Nevertheless, two escaping men are shown in the lower left section of the Nubian battle. Their striding postures indicate that they are running, and one can see that they have almost left the scene. The one who looks back at the king bridges the whole area of action and thus makes a link between the various components of the picture (king = order / enemies = chaos). The gesture of desperation of the fugitive in front underlines the ultimate futility of their attempt at escape.

In the Syrian battle, contact outwards is made by an Egyptian soldier in the middle section who leads out of the scene. The two soldiers in the upper and lower sections turning back and thus close the pictorial frame.

The creation of tension also differs in the four pictures, even if the basic structure seems comparable at first glance. The sections showing the king and his escort are identical. In each of these sections, however, dynamism is indicated in a different way. On one hand, that of the escort is characterised by forward movement and a close echelon; on the other hand, that of the king is characterised by his drawn bow. In both cases, the horses, striding out at high speed, do much to reinforce the movement.

The creation of tension in the third field is defined separately and thus produces different levels of connection. In the lion hunt, the king and the pride of lions are situated on the same level; the escort, however, is left out. In the desert hunt, on the other hand, an additional relationship is created with the escort by means of the echelon arrangement of the animals. This is reinforced by deliberate use of the same colours.

In the two battle scenes, all three levels are related to each other. In the Syrian battle it is evident that the Egyptian soldiers are arranged in three levels, just like the escort in its sections.

The colours in the scene and the fullness of the details enhance the creation of tension. Rich colour contrasts and the balance of detailed depiction, as well as open space, characterise the triangle of the king. In the hunting panels, however, there are numerous variations in colour and shades of colour (the lion hunt in yellow tones, the desert hunt in red and brown tones) and a great variety of elements. In the battle scenes, the figures are so close together that it is difficult to make out the various elements.

The two narrow sides of the chest have to be seen as fixed icons. The magnificent depiction of detail with rich colour contrasts is precisely that used in the royal area in the other scenes. The great variety of chaotic events among the enemies corresponds with the various postures of the trampled foes.

The short inscriptions in the main panels with the hunting and battle scenes underline the meaning of the pictures. The structure of the texts is very similar and refers to

1.     the divinity

2.     the glory

3.     the abundance of power and

4.     the success

of the sovereign. The inscriptions on the east and west side also emphasise his success in crushing all his enemies.

One must also bear in mind that the number of figures is not coincidental. It had a comprehensive symbolic meaning, and stood for the superior power of the sovereign.

The number of human and animal beings creates a further level of meaning important for the whole interpretation. The arrangement comprises a combination of some basic numbers which have a special meaning:

13, 17 and 19 for conflict and situations of chaos,

6 and 7 for the power of the king,

3 and 9 for the multiplicity of beings in the structured world,

4 and 8 for dimensions of space and the development of Creation,

12 for the totality of Creation.

Generally, the strong dominance of the number 8 is noticeable. There are 8 features associated with the king: 8 royal horses, 8 royal dogs, 8 charioteers in the lion hunt and in the Nubian war, 8 foot soldiers in the Nubian war, 8 lions and 8 enemies under the paws of the sphinxes.

Furthermore, there are

78 Egyptian soldiers (6 x 13)

68 enemies (4 x 17)

38 wild animals (2 x 19)

The total number of figures shows the following distribution:

Box:     68 human enemies (4 x 17) < => 42 Egyptian soldiers (6 x 7) + 6 figures of the king = 48 (6 x 8; 4 x 12)

Lid:     38 animals of the unstructured world (2 x 19) <=> 36 Egyptian soldiers (4 x 9; 3 x 12) + 2 figures of the king = 38 (2 x 19)

Box and Lid:     192 (8 x 3 x 8 / 4 x 12 x 4) total number of figures directly involved.

Furthermore, the numbers of verses in the short texts are important:

Lid, central column: 8

Lion hunt:               4 

Desert hunt:           6

Nubian battle:         4

Syrian battle:         4

West side:             4

East side:              2 = 32 (4 x 8)

The whole concept, with its different levels of iconography, composition and text, as well as its number symbolism, demonstrates the responsibility of the Egyptian king for the preservation of Creation by fighting against the chaotic tendencies of this world. The concept of the lion hunt is a divine one; the lions are divine opponents and the king needs the wild power of the desert god Seth to structure this world, a connection which is also established by the inscription. The sphere of the desert hunt is different; it belongs to this world and exemplifies the wild nature which the king has to subjugate. Divine elements are also present, of course, but in close combination with the natural surroundings. The echelon of the desert animals and the fact that they all move in the same direction demonstrate the absolute superiority of the king from the beginning. The two battle scenes refer to the third sphere. The compositions show the ends of the battles; all the enemies have been defeated, and the king supervises the victories. There are no direct contacts between the human enemies and the king. The Egyptian soldiers, and the royal dogs and horses, act as tools of a divine god, too holy and powerful to engage in direct contact. Although the battle scenes depicted are not real historical battles, the pictures nevertheless convey genuine factual information. The battles depicted (north = Syrian, south = Nubian) show two different kinds of real fighting technique: the northern Syrian enemy fights with chariots, the southern Nubian enemy only with infantry.

The king's responsibility for defending the well-ordered structure of the world against chaos is thus succinctly and convincingly expressed.

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