Aegean Bronze Age Wall Painting: The Theran Workshop

The extent of distribution of wall paintings within the buildings of Akrotiri and their correlation with their surroundings are discussed, along with their chronology, technique and iconography. Three main styles can be identified, each with their group of individual painters whose work can be distinguished by criteria such as the manner in which details are rendered, the different use of pictorial units, brushwork, colour combination and compositional organisation. The study of all these aspects demonstrates that, while ultimately dependent on influence and inspiration from Minoan Crete, Theran wall painting developed its own charcteristic features in the hands of an original and prolific local workshop.

Wall painting as one of the main means of interior decoration has a long history in the Aegean, beginning in a non-representational form in the Early Bronze Age and ending with the end of the palatial culture of mainland Greece. Archaeological findings prove that its birthplace was Crete, and more specifically Knossos, where this art developed and reached its peak in the middle and the beginning of the Late Bronze Age, flourishing until the end of LM II. During its most important phase (end of MM IIIB-LM IA/B) the art of wall painting spread to other Aegean areas, mainly the Cyclades (Melos, Thera and Kea), the Dodecanese (Rhodes) and probably mainland Greece, within a wider wave of Minoan cultural influence (Cameron 1978, 590; Immerwahr 1990a, 21-26, 84-85, 159-168, fig. 6; Boulotis 1988, 35-37; Televantou 1994b, 19-20, 130).

Continuity of habitation for long periods on most sites, the delicate nature of the material, destructions due to a variety of causes (earthquakes, fire, etc.), as well as the Aegean climatic conditions have resulted in the extremely poor preservation of almost all wall paintings, the majority of which are damagedand their colours altered or flaking. This situation was certainly aggravated by the primitive excavation and preservation methods used during the first half of this century, resulting in serious loss of important archaeological information. Lack of information is most acutely felt in matters such as the chronology of wall paintings in relation to the birth and development of this art in the Aegean, the recognition of the most important artistic centres on Crete, the islands and mainland Greece and the understanding of their styles, the relation of large scale painting to the shape and character of its surroundings, and the nature and development of subject matter over a period of time. We certainly do not intend to provide answers or solve all these longstanding problems within the limited space of this paper. Our aim is to describe briefly the position of Theran wall painting within Aegean Bronze Age Art and evaluate its importance.

Seen from this angle, the destruction of biblical proportions which overcame the town of Akrotiri has greatly facilitated archaeological research and the history of art, because it has provided us with important remains, among which the wall paintings are a unique body of material, invaluable for the study of Aegean prehistory. They are also a point of reference for the discussion of all Aegean wall painting in relation to the problems mentioned above, because of three basic archaeological factors: a) the large quantity of material, b) its extremely good condition of preservation, and c) the correlation of specific wall paintings to their surroundings.

     a)    The quantity of the material. On Crete as well as mainland Greece wall painting was confined to palaces and buildings with official or religious functions. By contrast, at Akrotiri all the excavated buildings were decorated with wall paintings to some extent, and this extent was apparently determined by the character of each building. In private houses decoration is confined to one or two rooms, usually connecting, and preferably situated on the first floor (West House, House of the Ladies, Sector B/Rooms 1 and 6, with Sector D/Room 2 an exception). These must have been the most important rooms, used for social gatherings and probably private worship, which may explain the religious character of some representations. By contrast, buildings of an official character are extensively decorated, for religious and propaganda purposes. For this reason wall paintings are found in areas associated with cult, rooms for formal gatherings, and on main staircases and entrances (Xeste 3, Xeste 4 (Televantou 1994b, 362-367)). It is worth contrasting the total area of the wall paintings of Xeste 3 (over 80 square metres) or Xeste 4 (the staircase alone must be over 25 square metres) with that of the West House (26 square metres) or the House of the Ladies (25 square metres).

Undoubtedly the extent of wall decoration in Akrotiri is due to the wealth of its inhabitants and the vicinity of the island to Crete which - although the cultural and political centre of that period - nevertheless allowed Theran society to adapt this art to its own character. It is probable that the wealthier Theran citizens, who controlled or influenced public affairs (economy, religion, politics), considered it their privilege to 'use' this art to project their status, in imitation of the situation in the palaces or public buildings of Crete. They did not, however, impede the artists' desire for freedom of expression,especially in matters of style (see below, section 4).

     b)    Good preservation of the material. Preservation is usually very good and occasionally excellent. Wall paintings are found either intact or broken into thousands of pieces. Even in the latter case, however, compositions can be restored almost to their original form by modern methods of recovery, from excavation to the final phases of restoration in the museum. This unprecedented wealth of complete compositions opens new perspectives for our understanding of subject matter, iconographic programme and style.

     c)    Correlation of wall paintings to surroundings. Because of the extremely good preservation of the wall paintings and the equally good preservation of buildings, it is possible to ascribe whole compositions to specific areas within the buildings (Televantou 1994b, 369-374), and review the relationship between the iconographic programme and the form and function of its surroundings.

It is obvious that these factors create a sound framework for research in the following fields: 1) chronology, 2) technique, 3) iconography, and 4) style and individual painters. Conclusions drawn should facilitate the recognition and evaluation of specific workshops, where Aegean wall painting flourished. These fields of research are briefly outlined below.

1. CHRONOLOGY

Research at Akrotiri has shown that the buildings of the last phase were built in the late MC period and were destroyed and extensively rebuilt or repaired during the transition from the MC to the LC period. They suffered at least another minor destruction sometime during LC I/LM IA, and more severe damage caused by the pre-eruption tremors at the end of LC I/LM IA. They were finally destroyed by the volcanic eruption that followed (Televantou 1992b, 145-146; Marthari 1993, 38-39). These events can be traced in the history of the wall paintings:

     a. When life in the town ended, there were wall paintings, painted floors and elaborately decorated tables of offerings, all found in the volcanic destruction level (Televantou 1992b, 146).

     b. Some of these wall paintings must have been painted immediately after the seismic destruction, or a little late. (West House), in the early LC I/LM IA period (Televantou 1994b, 357-362), while others should be dated in the later part of the same period. This is proved by the fact that there is occasional evidence of earlier painting on the same surface (Xeste 3, Xeste 4).

     c. In most cases fragments of earlier painted layers were found either in situ beneath the final surface, or reused for filling gaps in the plaster (Doumas 1992, fig. 150; Televantou 1992b, 146, nos. 6, 9, 12, 27-29, 40a-b, pls. XXIXa, XXXIXa; 1994b, 360-361). Fragments of older wall paintings were also found in the mortar used for the floors, as well as in the seismic destruction level at the bottom of the light-well in the House of the Ladies (Televantou 1994b, 36; 1992b, no. 23a,c). Evidently these older wall paintings were totally destroyed, a fact which connects them with a major destruction of the town. The House of the Ladies fragment (Doumas 1992, fig. 149) indicates that some of these were probably executed during the foundation of the buildings or a little later, that is before the seismic destruction. It is also most probable that at least some of them were created just after the rebuilding of the town in Early LC I/LM IA, like the older painted decoration of West House Room 4 (Televantou 1992b, 155, no. 14).

On the basis of the above evidence, it seems that interior decoration with wall paintings probably appeared at least during the transition from the MC to the LC period when Minoan cultural influence began to infiltrate Akrotiri, and continued to be used throughout LC I/LM IA. Thus, the wall paintings of the volcanic destruction level were the products of a long period of activity.

2. TECHNIQUE

The technique of Theran wall paintings (Immerwahr 1990a, 11-19; Televantou 1994b, 350-355) involves four stages of work: a) the coating of the wall surface to be decorated with plaster, b) the division of the resulting even surface into sections, while the plaster was still wet, with the aid of pieces of string and, occasionally, by incision, c) the drawing of outlines with paint and/or incision, and d) the addition of colour. Different colours were used in a variety of darker or lighter shades: blue, red, ochre, orange, black and brown to red-brown. The method commonly used was al secco, while true fresco was rare and most probably unintentional.

Theran technique is similar to that of the Minoan wall paintings, and probably derives from Crete, where it appears very early (Cameron 1978, 590; Immerwahr 1990a, 11-26, 84-85, 159-169, fig. 6; Boulotis 1988, 35-37; Televantou 1994b, 19-20, 130, 350-355).

3. ICONOGRAPHY

The range of subjects, which includes processions of male gift-bearers (Doumas 1992, figs. 139-140; Evans 1928, 704-720, fig. 443, col. pl. XV; Immerwahr 1990a, 88-90, pls. 38-40 Kn no. 22; Televantou 1994b, 179, 371, 398), animals and birds in natural settings (Pl. 16; Doumas 1992, figs. 66, 85-86, 95-99, 135; Morgan 1988, 41-44, 170; Televantou 1994b, 288-292), crocus gathering (Pls. 10-12; Doumas 1992, figs. 122-130; Immerwahr 1990a, 49-50 A.T. no. 1aa-b, pls. 17-18; Televantou 1994b, 371-374, 378; Cameron 1978, 580-582; Marinatos 1990, 372-374), monkeys involved in human activities (Doumas 1992, figs. 95-96; Immerwahr 1990a, 21, 41-42, 162 Kn no. 1, pls. 10-11), fishermen (Televantou 1994b, 183-185), acrobat (Figs. 1-2)⁽¹⁾ and shrines with horns of consecration (Doumas 1992, fig. 147; Morgan 1988, 83-85; Televantou 1994b, 268-271, figs. 58a-c, 59), is to a large extent of Minoan origin (Morgan 1988, 167-168; Televantou 1994b, 377-378; Marthari 1993, 41).

Many Minoan motifs are also regularly used (Televantou 1994b; Marthari 1993, 38-41). For example, the monkey (Vanschoonwinkel 1990, 332-337), the bull (Morgan 1988, 57; Televantou 1994b, 232, 233, pl. 28b, col. pl. 30, αναδ. σχ. 1; Marthari 1993 motif no. 1, 216-218), the goat (Morgan 1988, 59; Televantou 1994b, 222-223; Marthari 1993 motif no. 2A, 216-218), the sheep (Morgan 1988, 59; Televantou 1994b, 222-223; Marthari 1993 motif no. 2A, 216-218), the dolphin (Morgan 1988, 61, 170; Immerwahr 1990b, 242-243; Vanschoonwinkel 1990, 341-343; Televantou 1994b, 241-244; Marthari 1993 motif no. 4, 242-245), the lion (Morgan 1988, 45; Televantou 1994b, 226-231), the blue-bird (Morgan 1988, 66; Televantou 1994b, 238-239), the duck (Morgan 1988; Televantou 1994b, 234-236; Marthari 1993 motif no. 3d, 237), the butterfly (Televantou 1994b, 240-241; Morgan 1988, 45; Vanschoonwinkel 1990, 331), the crocus (Morgan 1988, 29-32, 170; Marthari 1993 motif no. 5, 250-253), the papyrus (Morgan 1988, 21-24; Televantou 1994b, 248), the lily (Televantou 1994b, 161; Marthari 1993 motif no. 6, 258-261), the palm tree (Morgan 1988, 24-29; Televantou 1994b, 245-248; Marthari 1993 motif no. 8, 269-272), the reeds (Morgan 1988, 20; Televantou 1994b, 250; Marthari 1993, motif no. 9, 258-261), the imitation of marble or wood (Televantou 1994b, 143-144, 157-158; Immerwahr 1990a, 145-146), and decorative motifs such as rosettes and spirals (Immerwahr 1990a, 63, 142 Kn nos. 36-38; Televantou 1994b, 151-152, 155 nn. 40, 51, figs. 36, 35).

The Minoan range of subjects was probably enriched by the introduction of new themes, like the antelopes (Doumas 1992, figs. 82-84), the osier (Doumas 1992, fig. 151; Televantou 1994b, 250, col. pls. 45, 52a-b, fig. 55) and the swallow (Pls. 17-18; Doumas 1992, figs. 72-76; Immerwahr 1990b, 238-241; Televantou 1994b, 239-240; Marthari 1993 motif no. 3a, 227-231). At the same time, some traditional Aegean motifs (Cycladic or Minoan) were adjusted to Theran tastes, like the nude youths and children (blue heads) (Televantou 1988, 147; 1994b, 184 with bibliography), the naturalistic depiction of the human form at different ages (children, youths, adults) (Televantou 1988, 147-148), or some elements of the rocky landscape (for instance the 'silent wave' (Televantou 1994b, 260-261)).

But the most important fact is that the majority of these traditional subjects were transformed, resulting in dynamic creations with many new elements in the composition and in the choice, use and rendering of iconographic units. This transformation derives from the Cycladic cultural background of Thera and the social structure of Akrotiri, but it also depends on the training and talent of each individual painter. The style of the Theran painters is, I believe, the basic element which differentiates Theran from Minoan wall painting (see below).

4. STYLE AND INDIVIDUAL PAINTERS

An element which adds a strong Minoan character to the Theran wall paintings is the fact that the painters follow the basic rules and conventions of Minoan painting and art, using the Minoan manner and varieties of wall painting.

     a)    The basic rules and conventions of Minoan wall painting (Televantou 1992b, 146-147; 1994b, 375-378):

The division of the painted surface into a broader main zone flanked by two narrower zones above and below (Televantou 1994b, 376-377).

The use of two or more walls of a room as a continuous surface on which a single theme is painted (Televantou 1994b, 375).

The traditional differentiation of sexes by the use of red-brown for the males and white for the females (Televantou 1994b, 374; 1988, 145-147).

The rendering of human figures: head and feet always in profile (Televantou 1988, 155-156, 159).⁽²⁾

The conventional rendering of green by blue (particularly for trees and plants (Televantou 1994b, 245, 250, 301).

The lack of shade and depth (apart from some clear attempts by the 'Painter of the Crocus Gatherers') (Televantou 1994b, 377).

The linear (side by side) placement of figures in the large scale compositions (Televantou 1988, 160).

     b)    Manner of wall decoration

It has been proved that the walls at Akrotiri are decorated in either of the following manners, both Minoan:

Flat painting, by far the commonest manner, as in all the Minoan and Mycenaean centres.

A combination of painting with stucco relief (Doumas 1992, figs. 136-137; Immerwahr 1990a; Televantou 1992b nos. 23a, 37, 42).

     c)    Varieties of wall painting

At Akroriri there are two basic varieties depending on the size of the subjects:

Miniature painting (Immerwahr 1990a, 63-75; Televantou 1988, 149-150, 160-161; 1994b, 202-203). To this category belong those wall paintings where the pictorial elements are not bigger than 10-12 cm.. A unique example of this kind of painting at Akrotiri is the well known miniature frieze of the West House (Pls. 1-3; Doumas 1992, figs. 26, 30, 35), while at the same scale there are incised studies of pictorial subjects like the ship (Televantou 1987, 115-122, fig. 2:5; 1994b, 276, fig. 60) and the acrobat in the background of the procession fresco (see note 1).

Large scale wall painting (Televantou 1988, 150-151). This is the commonest variety of Aegean wall painting, and can be subdivided into three categories according to the size of the figures or the other pictorial elements of the composition: a) life size (for example, Pl. 5; Doumas 1992, figs. 19-25, 109-115,138-140), b) a scale of two-thirds life size (for example Doumas 1992, figs. 100-108), and c) a scale of half life size. The first two are widely used on Thera, while the third, which is quite common in Minoan and Mycenaean wall paintings, appears only on the African fresco (Doumas 1992, fig. 148).

Because of the above factors the individuality of the Theran wall paintings may not be immediately obvious to the spectator. Careful inspection, however, shows that there are some very specific stylistic differences between Minoan painting - at least as we know or understand it through the surviving examples - and the Theran variety.

One general, immediately obvious, difference is an almost blinding brightness radiating from the paintings. This is the result of an overall simplicity combined with the strong chromatic contrasts which project from the almost invariably white and usually plain background (Davis 1990, 214-222; Televantou 1992a, 59; 1992b, 148; 1994b, 145, 376). The use of a white background is undoubtedly intentional, since the painters do not hesitate to choose other colours to suit a particular subject, for instance blue between the towns in the miniature frieze. A good example is provided by the 'Painter of the Ladies with bouquets', who, in the case of the blue-eyed lady (Televantou 1994b, pl. 60) holding white lilies in her arms, overcame the technical problem of projecting the white flowers on a white background by a very simple expedient: he painted a big red hanging 'wavy band', as in the paintings of the boxing children and the antelopes (Doumas 1992, figs. 78-79, 82-83), on which he reserved the face of the figure and painted the lilies. The use of white backgrounds, because of its inherent difficulties, obviously demanded accomplished painters. It is difficult, for instance, to cover mistakes on a white background, whereas it is relatively easy to paint over a mistake on a coloured background. The result was that only the best artists became masters, while the less capable remained mere assistants.

This brightness of the Theran wall paintings is an important and constant Cycladic element, characteristic of a culture fond of light and clarity, which deified poetry, harmony and sunshine, qualities that were later to be combined in the character of the Delian Apollo. The interplay between light and colour becomes more interesting if we bear in mind that on the Theran palette many shades were added to the basic Minoan range of colours. Blue, for instance, occurs as light blue, grey-blue, blue-black and so on.

But the most important difference lies in the style of the Theran paintings, as expressed by the personal work of specific masters. Their strong Cycladic cultural background, and their relative freedom from the main centre of artistic creation due to the geographical distance between Thera and Crete, led the Therans on a quest during the course of which various interconnected tendencies developed, partly inspired by a parallel Cretan 'restlessness'. Very little can be said about this 'restlessness' because the fragmentary state of preservation and the uncertain dating of many Cretan wall paintings do not allow for comparisons and correlations.

Three styles can be distinguished on Theran wall paintings: the Minoanising, the Formal-Abstract and the Free style. We shall refer below to the basic characteristics of each one in relation to the wall paintings and the painters, but we shall first mention briefly the problem of attribution of specific works to individual artists. The three basic factors referred to earlier on, i.e. quantity, preservation and association with specific buildings, as well as the fact that the wall paintings all belong to the same well defined chronological period, show that the Theran wall paintings could not possibly be the work of one or even two painters or even of one generation of artists. Moreover, the scale used on Theran painting - even in the case of the miniature frieze - permits the observation of many details, facilitating the distinction of different hands. Generally speaking, the criteria by which different painters can be distinguished are: the individual way of drawing and rendering details, the different use of various pictorial units, brush work, the combination of colours, the organisation of the composition, and the general atmosphere of the painting - in other words, the personal style and manner of the painter.

       The Minoanising style (Televantou 1992b, 149-151)

The Theran wall paintings which can be described as Minoanising are works of painters who abide by the conventions of Minoan art. Perhaps we should look among them for the first Therans to learn their art in a Minoan workshop and return home to impart their knowledge to their assistants, although it is of course equally probable that this art was transferred to Thera by Cretan painters who worked on the island. Whatever the case, there is no doubt that these Theran artists had firsthand knowledge of Minoan painting. Their idea of the attainment of perfection was rooted in traditional methods which avoided experimentation and dubious innovations (unlike the painters representing the Theran Free style, see below). They did not hesitate, however, to adopt those achievements of their fellow painters which did not clash with their rather conventional approach, and to adapt the rendering of subjects to the social or artistic requirements of Theran society. Their serene work generally gives an impression of 'naturalism', and shows a deep love for decoration and detail, one of the basic characteristics of Minoan wall painting. At the same time, one can detect in these wall paintings certain qualities which contain characteristics of the two other Theran styles, the Formal-Abstract and the Free style. For instance, elements of the Formal-Abstract style, such as the harmonious repetition of motifs, structural order and an inclination towards abstraction, are usually combined with freedom and movement, features adopted from the Free style. The general tendency is towards moderation and balance.

The Theran Minoanising style is represented by the wall paintings of two buildings, the West House and Xeste 4.

     West House. The best examples of the West House pictorial programme are the miniature (Doumas 1992, figs. 26, 30, 35; Pls. 1-3) and the 'Fishermen' frescoes (Pls. 5-7; Doumas 1992, figs. 18-23), both probably painted by the same artist, the 'Miniaturist' (Televantou 1994b, 300-307).

On the miniature fresco, his hand can be recognised in the uniform rendering of many pictorial elements, such as the human figures, or some details of the motifs - note for example the hooves of the sheep, and the webbed feet of the duck (Doumas 1992, figs. 23, 28) or the feet of the griffin and those of the lion (Pl. 3, 0-1.80 m.; Doumas 1992, figs. 32, 36). It is also evident in the consistency and clarity of design of this extremely complex theme, organised round a central axis and spreading as a descriptive (geographical) map over the four walls of Room 5 (Televantou 1994b, 298-299).

His unique personality is marked by an inclination towards naturalism combined with love of decoration, expressed mainly by the extensive use of outline (note for instance the rendering of the sheep and of the lions), the symmetrical arrangement of subordinate scenes (for instance the arrangement of the herds, the ships and the youths in front of the entrance of Town V, and the more or less correct proportions between similar motifs or related figures) (Televantou 1994b, 300).

His originality is revealed by the brilliant application of the harmonious repetition of motifs (dolphin, lion, blue-bird), the perfect use of the traditional 'flying gallop' scheme (griffin), the use of the same motif to represent both a living being and its effigy or symbol (lion), and the organisation of the east frieze in which the horizontal axis of the river divides the painting surface into two fields where the landscape unfolds (Televantou 1994b, 300).

The whole atmosphere of the painting retains an admirable unity, while balancing scenes of totally different character and tension: movement alternates with stillness, war and violence are followed by peace and calm, imposing magnificence goes together with charming spontaneity.

We consider as masterpieces of this artist the sub-tropical landscape, the palm trees, the griffin, the ducks, the dead soldier, the lions and the dolphins. Such powerful creations justly became a source of inspiration for other forms of art, possibly with the personal contribution of the 'Miniaturist' himself (Televantou 1994b, 305-308).

To the same painter we attribute the two fishermen (Pls. 5, 7; Doumas 1992, figs. 18-23; Televantou 1994b, 305-308), because they display the same style and manner - for instance the use of traditional forms without much attention to depth - and because, by a combination of conventionality and moderation, they become distinctive figures. If, for instance, we compare these figures to the dead men on the miniature fresco (Doumas 1992, fig. 29), we shall see the same love of curved outlines, the same form of the body, the same rendering of the shoulder, narrow waist, bulging muscles and large feet.

The 'Miniaturist' was most likely responsible not only for the miniature and the 'Fishermen' frescoes, but for organising the overall pictorial programme of the West House (Televantou 1994b, 305-308). He was, evidently, the master-painter working with a group of assistants and pupils, who under his supervision and guidance painted the cabins of the ships, the imitation of marble and the vases with lilies (Doumas 1992, figs. 24-25, 49-62, 63-64). This group includes the so-called 'Priestess'  (Doumas 1992, figs. 24-25), a work by a less gifted artist, betrayed by the stiff outline of the figure and the many preliminary sketches and corrections (note especially the hands) (Televantou 1994b, 179).

In conclusion, we can say that the 'Miniaturist' has a deep knowledge of Minoan painting, which can be detected, for instance, in the origins of most of his motifs and in the way in which he renders them, in his use of a shorthand technique and in his perfect use of artistic conventions. His artistic genius, and his technical skill and meticulousness, enabled him to use this knowledge creatively. He was an experienced artist, who decorated the West House in his mature years, as one can see in the miniature and the 'Fishermen' frescoes, both of which are highly original works of exceptional quality (Televantou 1994b, 179).

     Xeste 4. The walls of the main external staircase of Xeste 4 were decorated with a procession of male figures carrying various objects (Doumas 1992, figs. 138-141). Here the organisation of the subject, the choice of setting, the rendering of the figures (for example as regards dress) and some of the objects carried by the men (Televantou 1994a), have parallels in the well known Knossian Procession frescoes, and especially the earlier one, which is contemporary with the Theran wall painting (Cameron 1978, 588, pl. 4; Immerwahr 1990a, 11-26, 84-85, 159-168, fig. 6; Boulotis 1988, 35-37; Televantou 1994b, 19-20, 130, 350-355). It is worth mentioning that a less talented painter (or painters) was at work in this most significant wall painting. The result seems to be in contrast to the excellent quality of the other pictorial Theran wall painting (apart from the 'Priestess').

       The Formal-Abstract style (Televantou 1992b, 151-152; 1994b, 380-381)

There is a group of Theran wall paintings which displays a strong tendency towards formality and abstraction. The painters who represent this style aim to render some of the pictorial themes in a schematic-abstract way and to create severe, clearly outlined figures. Their palette contains a rather limited range of colours: blue, black, red and yellow ochre. For their decorative arrangements, they mostly use harmonious repetition of isolated motifs. Their figures are somewhat immobile, creating the impression of restrained grace and stately severity.

In their work we observe the early appearance of some of the essential characteristics of later Minoan as well as Mycenaean painting, such as repetition, simplification and formality. These raise the question of the Theran contribution to the emergence and development of the Formal style, which dominated Aegean painting during the last phases of the Late Bronze Age. As mentioned above, some elements of this tendency towards formality appear in the 'Miniaturist's' work. Furthermore, the fact that the ships' cabins and the 'checker' motif have their parallels in Mycenaean painting makes one wonder whether the 'Miniaturist' was one of the pioneers of the Formal style rather than merely a talented artist who adopted the innovations of his fellow painters (Televantou 1994b, 305-306).

The most representative examples of the Formal-Abstract style are the wall paintings of Sector B (Room 1) and the House of the Ladies.

   Room B1: 'Antelopes' and 'Boxing children' frescoes (Doumas 1992, figs. 82-84, 78-79). On the antelopes we can observe all the characteristic features of this style: repetition, structural order, balance, limited use of colours, well defined forms and abstract landscape. An attempt to render depth can be detected in the way the figures are raised from the ground as if suspended in mid air, or in the way they partially overlap. This painting is clearly the work of an excellent draughts man, who uses long steady lines. His hand can also be recognised in the young boxers. For example, the eyes are drawn in the same way as those of the antelopes (Doumas 1992, figs. 80-84), while the overlapping bodies and the way in which the necklace is rendered, represent attempts at creating depth. We should also note here the painter's intention to vary facial expression (note the eyes and the inclination of the head), a tendency towards naturalism which is one of the main features of the Theran Free style (see below). The work of this talented artist is generally characterised by strained movement and grace.

   House of the Ladies (Room 1): the 'Ladies' and 'Papyrus' frescoes (Doumas 1992, figs. 6-13). All the above mentioned characteristic features of this style appear in the pictorial programme of this house. The painter of the 'Ladies', apparently the master-painter of the programme, is a gifted artist who uses clear, steady lines. His figures have slender bodies with correct proportions and restrained grace. The beautiful, serious faces, the simple clothes and hairstyles, give a certain severity to the picture which inspires respect. The artist skilfully combines traditional elements with others, adding movement in order to enliven the composition. Note particularly the 'Bending Lady' with her face turned upwards, and the hanging wavy band with the system of stars.

       The Free style (Televantou 1992b, 152-153; 1994b, 381-382)

This style is unique in the Aegean. Judging by the range of subjects (crocus gathering, monkeys involved in human activities, animals and birds in a natural setting, see above section 3), it seems most probable that the exponents of this tendency had personal knowledge of Minoan painting. They draw in the Minoan manner, and many of their landscape features certainly derive from Minoan painting and its local interpretation (Minoanising style: for instance the rocky landscape on the 'Spring' and 'Crocus gatherer' frescoes (Pl. 8; Doumas 1992, figs. 60, 116)), or from the Theran Formal-Abstract style (for instance the landscape on the 'Monkeys' fresco (Doumas 1992, figs. 85-86)). This does not prevent them from combining these with the Cycladic artistic background and love of pictorialism, to create their own individual style. These wall paintings evoke a strong feeling of life and movement and are characterised by originality and a strong element of drama. The figures move freely, and the compositions are full of spontaneity and grace. These painters strive for naturalism and the expression of emotion - and they often succeed. Wall paintings of this style are found in Xeste 3, Sector D (Room 2) and Sector B (Room 6). On these we recognise the hand of three great artists: The master 'Painter of the Crocus gatherers', the 'Painter of the Ladies with bouquets' and the 'Painter of the Monkeys'.

   Xeste 3 - Sector D: the 'Painter of the Crocus gatherers'  (Televantou 1988, 162-163; 1992a, 59-62; 1992b, 151-153; 1994b, 381). To this painter we attribute the 'Spring' fresco from Sector D (Pls. 15, 17-18; Doumas 1992, figs. 66-76) and the following paintings from Xeste 3: the three worshippers (Doumas 1992, fig. 100), the 'Enthroned Lady' (the so-called 'goddess') (Pl. 13; Doumas 1992, figs. 122, 125-126) and the four young crocus gatherers (Pls. 8-11, 20; Doumas 1992, figs. 123-124, 129-130, 116-121) who have given the painter his name, the four life-size male figures (Doumas 1992, figs. 109-114), the 'Landscape with Reeds and Ducks' (Pl. 16; Doumas 1992, fig. 135), the 'Rocky Landscape with Crocuses' (Televantou 1992b, pl. XXXIIIa), the 'Swallows' (Doumas 1992, figs. 97-99), and finally the monkeys involved in human activities (Doumas 1992, figs. 95-96).

This artist is a talented draughtsman, using his brush with great ease and confidence. His lines are admirably steady, with perfectly controlled thickness. His hand can be detected in many elements in the drawing of human figures, for instance in the profile and facial features, as well as in the form of the body and especially of the hands, fingers and feet (Televantou 1988, 162-163, figs. XLIa-c, XLIIa-c).

His interest is focused on creating depth in the case of living beings, which he tries to draw in natural positions. This is obvious in the human figures drawn in complex positions, for instance the three figures with their heads turned backwards, the veiled girl (Doumas 1992, figs. 107-108) and the youth who holds a long cloth (both giving the impression of twisting) (Doumas 1992, figs. 109, 113), and the young crocus gatherer (Pls. 8, 20; Doumas 1992, figs. 116, 118-119) as well as on the 'Wounded Lady' (Doumas 1992, figs. 105-106). An effort to achieve perspective is also obvious on the swallows (Pl. 18; Doumas 1992, figs. 69, 72-73, 75, 77, 99).

His paintings have a touch of realism, visible, for instance, in the rendering of anatomical details like the join of the shoulder, the chest and the belly of a man (Doumas 1992, figs. 110, 114), or of individual characteristics like the red hair and blue eyes of the young girl (Pl. 10; Doumas 1992, fig. 130). He loves depicting genre scenes like the one in which a swallow feeds her young (Doumas 1992, fig. 98). On the other hand, we observe, for the first time in Aegean painting, some attempt at portraying emotion -for example the pain felt by the 'Wounded Lady' (Doumas 1992, fig.106), a worshipper's awe before the 'Goddess' (Pls. 11-12; Doumas 1992, figs. 122-124) and communication between two young girls (Pl. 8; Doumas 1992, fig. 116).

An attempt at shading can be seen in the intentionally uneven thickness of the outline and in the use of pink between the breasts, on the ankles and other parts where the skin is soft and tender (for instance the neck, the chin, and between the fingers and toes).

The manner of this artist can be detected in the rendering of the various landscape features. Note, for instance, the shape, colours and brushwork of the rocks, the crocuses and the way in which the plants grow from the rocky ground (compare the paintings Doumas, 1992 figs. 66-69 with 96-99, 116, 129). His hand can also be recognised in the rendering of the monkeys, whose eyes (Doumas 1992, fig. 95) are identical to those of the human beings and of the swallows (Pl. 18; Doumas 1992, figs. 73-74, 97, 99). If the swallows of Xeste 3 and Sector D had been found together, it would have been impossible to assign them to different paintings (Televantou 1992b, 153, pl. XLIIIa-d).

In general the 'Painter of the Crocus gatherers' observes nature closely and loves to paint its various manifestations. His interests focus on perspective and a more natural depiction of living beings. He also tries to capture the instantaneous, in order to convey an atmosphere of reality. Landscape forms an integral part of many of his compositions; it is the setting of festivals, ceremonies or idyllic moments involving birds and animals. Against a neutral white background (except on paintings Doumas 1992, figs. 116, 122 (Pls. 8, 12), where the background is full of crocuses, possibly an attempt at creating depth) his delicate figures move freely and gracefully, making their emotions and spirituality felt and thus creating an impression of real life.

   Xeste 3: the 'Painter of the Ladies with bouquets' (Televantou 1988, 164; 1992a, 62; 1992b, 153; 1994b, 381, fig. 60). To this painter we attribute the wall paintings with the four ladies holding bouquets and baskets full of crocuses from the first floor of Room 3b (Pl. 4; Doumas 1992, figs. 131-134; Televantou 1994b, pl. 60). He is a very good draughtsman whose aim is to depict individual figures by differentiating their features and the colour of the eyes (for instance the blue-eyed lady holding white lilies). Comparing two of these figures we observe that although the profiles of both have been painted in the same way, the one (Doumas 1992, fig. 134) has an angular forehead, pointed nose and a little oblique line joining the chin with the neck, while the other (Doumas, 1992, fig. 132) has carved forehead and nose. The expression of each one is differentiated by the thickness of the upper eye line and that of the eyebrow. Looking at these faces one wonders whether they are not the first portraits in Aegean painting.

   Sector B (Room 6): the 'Painter of the Monkeys' (Televantou 1992b, 153; 1988, 162-163, pls. XLIa-c, XLIIa-c). The wall painting with the monkeys (Doumas 1992, figs. 85-86) displays all the characteristics of the Free style: a feeling of life and movement, a strong dramatic element, a sense of depth, and a tendency to naturalism. This painter has the ability to catch and render the instantaneous and to transmit very realistically the psychology and character of wild animals. It is very interesting, moreover, that one of the monkeys has the head shown frontally, which indicates the pioneer spirit of this excellent artist (Doumas 1992, fig. 86).

CONCLUSION

The facts briefly outlined in this paper demonstrate, in our opinion, that an original and prolific workshop was born on Thera, which, in spite of powerful Minoan influences, managed to develop its own particular features and express them with clarity. Its period of activity, apparently beginning at the end of MC/MM IIIB, covers the whole of LC I/LM IA, a period long enough not only for it to become known outside the island but also to influence other areas. The realisation that at least two painters, and in the case of Xeste 3 painters of equal calibre, worked simultaneously on some buildings proves that there were professional painters working with assistants, something which should be self-evident in the face of such large-scale activity. The artistic quality of almost all pictorial wall paintings proves that the destruction of the town occurred when this workshop was at the height of its powers, although the undoubtedly inferior quality of some large works, such as the procession of Xeste 4, may be an indication that these powers were beginning to decline.

(1).      In the white background of the 'Procession' fresco from Xeste 4 there is an incised miniature figure of an acrobat, possibly a taureador (Doumas 1992, fig. 140; Televantou 1994-1995, 13-22, figs. 1, 4).

(2).      A monkey on the wall painting from Room B6 is the only exception on Thera (Doumas 1992, figs. 85-86).

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